Table 1 Pathways to Social Empowerment [14]

Statist Socialism Fig. 2a – The state remains a provider of many public goods that can benefit the working classes and the marginalized groups. For social empowerment, the state needs to be under democratically empowered civil society.

Social Democratic Statist Economic Regulation Fig. 2b – One of the main functions of the state is its regulatory capacity. States in such cases thus act to put restrictions on owners of capital thereby keeping a check on economic power. Social empowerment in this case depends on what affect social power can have on the state through democratic political processes.

Capitalist State Economic Regulation Fig. 2c – Regardless of how much influence social power can wield on the economy through democratic political processes on the state, it cannot be denied that capital has far more influence on the state. In capitalists’ societies, much of the state’s economic regulatory function yields to the needs of capital or economic power than social power.

Associational Democracy Fig. 2d – An institutional arrangement that is coordinated joint effort of the three social domains. Health councils involving medical associations, community organizations, and public health officials’ in various aspects of healthcare are examples of associational democracy. Social empowerment results from such councils being internally democratic, representing broad interests of civil society, and undertaking decision-making through deliberation.

Cooperative market economy Fig. 2e – This pathway deals predominantly with the economic domain and describes the nature of a system in which there are worker-owned cooperatives. Unless they are embedded within cooperative market economy, worker-owned cooperatives are disadvantaged as they are inherently socialistic but mostly based in capitalist economic structure. Cooperative market economy is oriented around cooperatives or based on such principles.

Participatory socialism Fig. 2f – is a combination of statist socialism and empowered participation where there is joint involvement of the state and civil society in organizing and controlling various kinds of production of goods and services. In this case, state involvement is far greater than state’s role in social economy – social economy meaning voluntary associations of civil society directly organizing various aspects of economic activity. Similarly, social power is also greater in participatory socialism than statist socialism.