Table 3 Factors associated with health utilization, OOP spending, proportion of medical expenses to income

Poor not enrolled in Medical Aid

−0.173***

−0.290**

1.143***

0.090***

The near poor

−0.101

0.243

1.597***

0.109***

Gender (ref = male)

Female

0.342***

−0.319

0.175*

−0.0223

Age (ref = 20–39)

40–64

0.204*

0.418

−0.529***

0.012

≥65

0.286**

−0.347

−0.630***

−0.037

Education level (ref = below elementary school)

Middle/High school

−0.163***

−0.261

0.196**

−0.033

Above university

−0.268**

−0.701

0.480***

−0.109**

Marital status (ref = married)

Single

−0.038

−1.267**

−0.778***

0.074

Divorced or separated

0.040

0.043

−0.861***

−0.005

Employment status (ref = economically active)

Inactive/unemployed

0.124**

0.531*

−0.017

0.028

Self-rated health (ref = good)

0.373***

0.944***

0.392***

0.007

Depression (ref = no)

−0.002

0.503**

0.017

0.029

Disability (ref = no)

0.094

0.255

0.103

−0.014

Chronic disease (ref = no)

1.383***

0.954***

0.577***

0.024