Table 3 Association (βs) from Ordinary Least Squares and Multilevel Linear Regression Models (Main Effects) between Child Stunting (Height for Age) and Household Socio-Economic Status, controlling for various other covariates; Fifteen Major States, India, NFHS-3

Poorest

-0.181***

(0.026)

-

-0.296***

(0.027)

-0.180***

(0.027)

-0.183***

(0.028)

-0.185***

(0.028)

Richest

0.311***

(0.029)

-

0.548***

(0.027)

0.296***

(0.030)

0.314***

(0.031)

0.310***

(0.031)

Controls

Individual Characteristics

Child_age (in months)

-0.085***

(0.002)

-

-0.091***

(0.002)

-0.088***

(0.002)

-0.089***

(0.002)

-0.089***

(0.002)

Child_age2

0.001***

(0.000)

-

0.001***

(0.000)

0.001***

(0.000)

0.001***

(0.000)

0.001***

(0.000)

Sex_male

-0.005

(0.019)

-

-0.012

(0.018)

-0.012

(0.018)

-0.012

(0.018)

-0.012

(0.018)

Order_of_birth

-0.016***

(0.006)

-

-0.041***

(0.006)

-0.018**

(0.006)

-0.016**

(0.006)

-0.016**

(0.006)

Size_at_birth

0.258***

(0.024)

-

0.296***

(0.023)

0.271***

(0.023)

0.265***

(0.024)

0.265***

(0.024)

Suffered_recent_illness

-0.021

(0.026)

-0.018

(0.026)

-0.025

(0.026)

-0.027

(0.027)

-0.026

(0.027)

Recommended_feed

0.042*

(0.021)

-

0.043*

(0.021)

0.045*

(0.021)

0.050*

(0.021)

0.050*

(0.021)

Completed_immunization

0.007

(0.022)

-

0.090***

(0.022)

0.017

(0.022)

0.014

(0.022)

0.015

(0.022)

Mothers' characteristics

Years_education

0.034***

(0.003)

-

-

0.036***

(0.003)

0.032***

(0.003)

0.031***

(0.003)

BMI_mother

0.026***

(0.003)

-

-

0.029***

(0.003)

0.025***

(0.003)

0.026***

(0.003)

Suffer_anemia

0.113***

(0.025)

-

-

0.104***

(0.026)

0.107***

(0.026)

0.107***

(0.026)

Treatment_self_noprob

-0.054

(0.038)

-

-

-0.046

(0.039)

-0.050

(0.040)

-0.049

(0.040)

Institutional_birth

0.087***

(0.024)

-

-

0.112***

(0.024)

0.075**

(0.025)

0.075***

(0.025)

Household characteristics

Ethnicity_SCST

-0.104***

(0.022)

-

-

-

-0.120***

(0.024)

-0.121***

(0.024)

Rural_residence

-0.135***

(0.023)

-

-

-

-0.147***

(0.026)

-0.145***

(0.026)

States

Haryana

-0.129*

(0.065)

-

-0.184*

(0.083)

-0.103

(0.078)

-0.122

(0.078)

-0.120

(0.078)

Rajasthan

0.161***

(0.060)

-

0.093

(0.077)

0.187**

(0.072)

0.160*

(0.073)

0.162*

(0.073)

Uttar Pradesh

-0.255***

(0.052)

-

-0.237***

(0.065)

-0.215***

(0.062)

-0.259***

(0.062)

-0.258***

(0.062)

Bihar

-0.165***

(0.060)

-

-0.179**

(0.077)

-0.115

(0.072)

-0.167*

(0.073)

-0.164*

(0.073)

Assam

0.131

(0.071)

-

0.115

(0.082)

0.126

(0.077)

0.153

(0.083)

0.153

(0.083)

West Bengal

0.142*

(0.060)

0.209**

(0.072)

0.186**

0.068)

0.162*

(0.070

0.165***

(0.070)

Orissa

0.116

(0.062)

-

0.126

(0.077)

0.123

(0.073)

0.127

(0.073)

0.134

(0.074)

Madhya Pradesh

0.025

(0.056)

-

0.062

(0.071)

0.069

(0.067)

0.032

(0.067)

0.034

(0.067)

Gujarat

-0.307***

(0.063)

-

-0.281***

(0.079)

-0.272***

(0.074)

-0.314***

(0.075)

-0.311***

(0.075)

Maharashtra

-0.161***

(0.058)

-

-0.012

(0.070)

-0.101

(0.067)

-0.156*

(0.068)

-0.153*

(0.068)

Andhra Pradesh

-0.013

(0.060)

-

0.103

(0.074)

0.041

(0.070)

-0.010

-0.005

(0.070)

Karnataka

-0.031

(0.063)

-

0.074

(0.076)

0.027

(0.073)

-0.002

0.001

(0.074)

Kerala

-0.021

(0.072)

0.229**

(0.083)

0.031

(0.079)

-0.005

0.000

(0.082)

Tamil Nadu

0.377***

(0.062)

-

0.54***

(0.075)

0.405***

(0.071)

0.385***

(0.072)

0.385***

(0.072)

_cons

-1.291***

(0.095)

1.593***

(0.014)

-0.184***

(0.083)

-1.471***

(0.094)

-1.200***

(0.102)

-1.208***

(0.102)

N

23099

24896

24541

23939

23099

23099

- 2 log likelihood

(R² 0.170)

-45882.64

-43383.54

-42042.3

-40559.133

-40553.034

X²statistics

152.390

-

4123.31

4657.03

4575.07

4527.58

P value

0.000

-

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000