Table 3 Summary of included studies- Qualitative (N = 50)
Author | Year | Country | Setting | Aspect measured in the Patient Reported Experience measure | Sample and population | Description of qualitative data collection | Specific strategies employed to improve participation of CALD population | How were recruitment sites identified and examples of places | CALD Relevant topic/question areas | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Abuelmagd | 2019 | Norway | Community | Diabetes mellitus care | N = 18 Immigrant Kurdish patient | Focus group discussion | • Patient recruited through Kurdish networks and common places where Kurdish population frequently visit like mosques and cafes • Research team-member who led FGD had a Kurdish background • Focus group discussion held in meeting room convenient for participant to attend | Sites were places in Oslo that the general Kurdish population frequently visits (Kurdish mosques and cafes) | Interview guide was developed based on study aims and previous research on non-Western immigrants with T2DM |
2 | Ahrne | 2019 | Sweden | Community | Maternity care: specifically, Antenatal care | N = 16 mothers N = 13 fathers Somali immigrants | Focus group discussion | • Focus group discussion held in locations where Somali migrants are present • Somali-speaking research assistant, interpreters and facilitators • Recruitment took place through existing networks within the Somali diaspora, public preschools and Child Health Centres • Data collection conducted in Somali language and translated to Swedish • Refreshments were offered | Sites were identified because many Somali people migrated and lived in those locations. Also, a third site was identified by the mid-wives who had experience of working in that area | None |
3 | Alkhaled | 2022 | Norway | Hospital | General health care experience | N = 20 Newly immigrated, Arabic speaking patients, Purposive sampling | In-depth interviews | • Participant information sheet and Consent form in Arabic language • According to the participants’ wishes, all interviews were conducted in their homes • Interviews conducted in Arabic • One Research team member had an Arab background and spoke Arabic. Other 3 researchers had an immigrant research focus | Sites were five hospitals. There is no information on how they were selected | Interview guide addressed the themes of linguistic competencies during communication, cultural issues such as values and beliefs, experience of pain, the role of the patient’s family, meals, and their experience in dealing with the Norwegian health-care system |
4 | Bitar | 2020 | Sweden | Hospital | Maternity care: evaluation of a communication app | N = 10 Arabic immigrant women who had used the App at least two times | Telephone interviews | • Participants had the choice of in-person or telephone interviews • Interviews were conducted during pregnancy in Arabic by the first author who had an Arabic background • Written informed consent in Arabic was obtained | Sites were six antenatal clinics in southeast of Sweden where app was launched and used by participants | • Demography questions included: • Ethnicity • Years of residence in Sweden • Ability to communicate in Swedish |
5 | Carlsson | 2016 | Sweden | Hospital | Maternity care: Experiences and preferences of care following a prenatal diagnosis of congenital heart defect among Swedish immigrants | N = 9 Pregnant immigrants and their partners were consecutively recruited following a prenatal diagnosis of a congenital heart defect in the foetus | Interviews | • Participants were given the option to either be interviewed together with their partner, or individually. All couples chose joint interviews • The second author, a female sociolinguistic researcher with previous experience of conducting face-to-face interviews and with no clinical contact with the participants, conducted all five interviews in Swedish. Four Interviews conducted with the aid of a professional interpreter | Site was a tertiary referral centre for foetal cardiology. There is no information on how it was selected | Demography questions included: • Country of birth |
6 | Cervantes | 2021 | USA | Hospital | Hospital care: Experiences of Latinx individuals who were hospitalized with and survived COVID-19 | Purposive sampling N = 60 Latinx adults | Semi structured telephone interviews | Interviews were conducted in English or Spanish according to participants’ preference | Identified participants via a data query that provided the contact information for individuals who self-identified as Latinx and had been hospitalized for COVID-19, and had an interviewer call them | Interview guide was developed based on a literature review of race disparities and the COVID-19 pandemic, with a particular focus on Latinx communities |
7 | Chu | 2005 | Australia | Hospital | Maternity care: Postnatal Care | N = 55 Participants. Three Chinese immigrant groups (People’s Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong and Taiwan) | face-to face and telephone interviews of over 25 key informants in-depth face-to-face interviews (using an interviewing guide) with 30 women in their homes field visits to identified community organisations; and focus group discussions | • The project team was multi-disciplinary and multi-lingual in nature • The author employed three research assistants, one each from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Mainland China • The informant had read and signed an informed consent form in the Chinese language | Participants were recruited through referral by community organisations and the researchers’ own social networks The informants were first approached by telephone, and upon receiving their expressed willingness to participate, were followed up with a home visit at a time nominated by them | Interview Guide questions included: • general background and migration history of informants • general health conditions before and after immigration; health beliefs and health utilisation behaviour • reproductive health beliefs, behaviour and experience in Australia |
8 | Decker | 2021 | USA, Mexico | Community, Hospitals | Maternity Care | N = 74 pregnant and/or parenting adolescents (Mexican origin) | Interviews, focus group discussion | • A binational team of trained and experienced researchers from Mexico and the United States conducted all focus groups and interviews in the language preferred (Spanish or English) • In recognition of their time and input, respondents received a $20 gift certificate in California while in Mexico, participants received infant supplies, such as diapers, per local institutional recommendations | • Guanajuato, Mexico, was identified as a traditional point of origin for migrants to California and Fresno, California, was identified as a primary point of arrival for Mexican immigrants • Youth in California were recruited from several community-based organizations serving pregnant and parenting youth • Study researchers used previously established relationships with clinics and organizations in both communities, and staff at these sites recruited youth to participate when they sought services at these sites | None |
9 | England | 2003 | United Kingdom | Primary Care | Paediatric Care | N = 24 mothers, Kurdish and Turkish refugees | Focus group discussion | • Consent form was provided in the appropriate language • Consent to record the sessions was obtained both in written form and verbally, as literacy levels for written Turkish are very variable among the mainly Kurdish patients • All groups were provided with crèche facilities and refreshments • ‘Health visitors’ and Turkish speaking ‘health advocates’ already working at the clinic. The focus groups were run by the health visitor and a health advocate, both of whom received focus group training prior to the study. In addition, another advocate acted as the interpreter | Site is a general practice surgery in North London where 18% of the attending patients are Turkish speaking Kurdish refugees | None |
10 | Falbe | 2017 | USA | Primary care | AHF (Active and Healthy Families) program to reduce obesity disparities in Latino children | N = 23 parents (Latino immigrants) | In – depth interviews | Interviews conducted in the participant’s preferred language (Spanish or English) | Parents participating in AHF in two clinics in San Francisco Bay area were chosen to participate | Interviews with AHF participants honed in specifically on “Promotora” qualities, actions, and relationship with patients (“Promotoras” in the trial were Spanish-speaking Latina mothers recruited to engage families, facilitate discussions and understanding of content) |
11 | Frahsa | 2020 | Switzerland | Community | Healthcare & social-services for chronic health conditions | Purposive, priori-defined maximum-variation sampling strategy 1. N = 12 Turkish, N = 12Portuguese, N = 12 German Immigrant women with chronic health conditions 2. N = 12 Swiss women with chronic health conditions | Multi-method qualitative Study: Semi-structured interviews, Focus Group Discussion Stakeholder Dialogues | • Interviews were conducted in Turkish, German and Portuguese by 4 bilingual researchers based at Swiss and Turkish universities • Interviews conducted at venues convenient to participants • Interviewees had option to be accompanied by members of their family or acquaintances • Participants received a gift upon completion of the interview • FGD was conducted in the language most comfortable for the greatest number of participants. In addition, a translator was present during the FGDs upon request by the participants • FGD participants received cash incentive and travel costs were covered | • Study took place at Swiss cantons of Bern and Geneva • Recruitment strategies to reach interviewees were: personal contacts via researchers’ professional and private networks, cultural associations, labor unions, associations for the elderly and retirement homes, academic institutes, hospitals, physiotherapists, and physicians or specialists known to have many immigrant patients and/or command of those patients’ native languages • Also recruited via public leaflets in shops, restaurants, pharmacies, churches etc., social media advertisements, and through snowballing by interviewees | • Any discrimination faced while living in Switzerland? • Length of stay in in Switzerland? |
12 | Garcia-Jimenez | 2019 | USA | Primary Care | Telephone Interpreter Services (TIS) at urban community clinic | Purposive Sampling N = 13 Spanish speaking immigrants who utilized TIS (N = 7 Ecuadorian, N = 2Columbian, N = 3 Dominican Republic) | Focus group discussion | • Focus group dates and times were varied in order to increase the number and diversity of participants • The focus groups were held in the clinic in order to minimize travel barriers to participation • The focus groups were facilitated in Spanish by the primary care resident physician on the research team (native speaker) • 2 research-team members were native speakers | • Site was an adult primary care clinic at the urban community clinic affiliated with the institution that approved and funded the project • Eligible individuals were recruited by means of flyers, identification by primary care providers, and face-to-face and telephone-based encounters | Focus Group Guide Barriers & Facilitators: 1.Using an interpreter telephone during a clinic visit makes me feel...... – Why? 2. Do you agree or disagree: Using an interpreter telephone is better than using my limited English. – Why? 3. What has been your experience with telephone interpreter use? 4. What makes it easy to use a telephone interpreter? 5. What makes it hard to use a telephone interpreter? 6. Do you like using the interpreter phone? – if YES, why – if NO, why 7. Do you agree or disagree: My doctor does a good job using the interpreter telephone. – How so? Cultural Barriers: 1. How does using the telephone interpreter affect your relationship with your doctor? 2. Does using a telephone interpreter make you feel differently about the care you receive? 3. Do you prefer your doctor speak Spanish, even if Spanish is their second language, to using the telephone interpreter? – if so, why – if not, why 4. Do you tell your doctor everything if you are using an interpreter phone? – if YES, why – if NO, why 5. What are your thoughts about the interpreter on the telephone? 6. How does the telephone interpreter services compare to other interpreter services? Using a clinic staff member? Using a family member? Baseline Questionnaire included: • Country of origin • English speaking ability • Year of immigration to USA • I have had providers who speak Spanish (Y/N) • My current provider uses an interpreter phone (Y/N) • If given the option, I would use a family-member instead of a telephone interpreter (Y/N) • In the past 12 months I have used an interpreter phone in _______ encounters |
13 | Garrett | 2008 | Australia | Hospital | Conceptions of cultural competency in acute health care | N = 49 patients from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) N = 10 carers from NESB [Arabic, Italian Vietnamese, Mandarin, Cantonese] | Focus group discussion | • Participant candidates were invited by bilingual research officers to attend the language-appropriate focus group • PI and a bilingual research officer co-facilitated each FG, which was conducted in the relevant community language, with a professional healthcare interpreter formally interpreting proceeding | The study was undertaken at a tertiary hospital serving a large multicultural community in the western suburbs of Sydney | Focus groups topics included: • impact of limited English proficiency on hospital experience • access to interpreters |
14 | Gilbert | 2019 | Australia | Community | Australian healthcare system & transnational treatment options | Purposive Sampling N = 34 Indian Immigrants | Focus group discussion | • FGD were conducted in various community spaces • They were usually run after-hours or on weekends, to best avoid conflicting with participants' work schedules • FG were facilitated by bilingual Hindi researcher • Participants each received A$20 compensation for their time, light refreshments provided • FG with older group was conducted in Hindi | • Melbourne was chosen as the city of interest as it has the largest Indian population of any Australian city • Participants were recruited through advertisements placed in community spaces such as local libraries and community centres • Various community groups ran presentations introducing the study | This study focuses on recent Indian migrants to Australia; their negotiation of the Australian healthcare system and their use of transnational treatment options. By exploring this through a framework of trust, researchers demonstrate how socio-cultural discrepancies in the ways trust is reached in the Indian and Australia healthcare systems respectively results in deficits of trust between Indian migrants and Australian healthcare professionals |
15 | Gronseth | 2006 | Norway | Community and primary care | Health and sickness as embedded in social life and cultural values | Interviews N = 100 Tamil refugees (70 families and 30 single individuals) Observations 50 health consultations | In-depth interviews, participant observations including healthcare consultations | • The researcher was a consultant in the Psychosocial Team for Refugees in Northern Norway • In the early stages of the research project, the researcher worked with Tamil interpreters, Tamil refugees who had obtained reasonable skills in Norwegian • When researcher was left alone with informants, they often volunteered supplementary, which tended to include additional emotional and bodily expressed information • When conducting the second stage of research based on the full year of fieldwork, she made less use of interpreters in order to avoid the kind of formality caused by the situation. A methodological approach of ‘being with’ and sharing experiences, or ‘attending’ to the field, was emphasized. a Broader spectrum of data sources was used, including verbal and cognitive data based on interviews and observations, but also the informants’ (and her own) bodily expressions, sensations and perceptions She took part in daily activities like cooking, eating, celebrations and ceremonies, watching Tamil TV and interacting with children. Within this approach, the researcher relied on Norwegian as the language of communication. Some Tamils spoke the language fluently, others rather poorly, and some produced close to no Norwegian. For those who spoke poorly, family members would help out in conversations, and in some instances the author arranged for an interview in which she called upon an interpreter | The site is a small fishing village in along the arctic coast of Norway with a Tamil refugee resettlement | Bi medicine vs Holistic medicine (Ayurveda) |
16 | Hadwiger | 2005 | USA | Community | How acculturation is manifested in illness narratives of diabetes | Mexican/Mexican -American adults No information on numbers | Ethnography involving formal interviews, participant observation and case-studies | • A network sample was recruited through previous contacts in Hispanic community • The interview guide was translated into Spanish • Two bicultural research -assistants participated as interpreters during interviews • Most interviews were conducted in informant’s home • Significant others were allowed to be present at the preference of the informant • Informed consent was obtained through a Spanish consent form | • This particular county in Midwest USA recorded a significant rise in Spanish-speaking population within 2 years following the establishment of a new agricultural plant • Primary field work included an internship with county health department’s bilingual bicultural health educator, participation in Hispanic religious affiliations, involvement with community Latino center, informal interviews with health providers in the community, & identification of community stake-holders | Contextual Data: • Duration lived in USA • Generational Status • Language proficiency • Acculturation Ratings: Cuellar, Arnold and Maldonado’s 2nd Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (ARSMA-2) |
17 | Herrero-Arias | 2021 | Norway | Community | Norwegian healthcare system | N = 20 Southern European immigrant parents | In-depth interviews and Focus group discussions | • Interview locations were chosen by participants (home/office) • FGD were moderated by a Spanish researcher | • Data was collected from 3 Norwegian municipalities with both rural and urban areas with high concentration of immigrants • Participants recruited through Facebook, RHA’s personal network, attendance of gatherings organized by immigrant communities in Norway and snowball sampling | Demography questions included: • Country of origin • Years lived in Norway |
18 | Hogg | 2015 | United Kingdom | Primary care | Health-visiting service for families with young children | Purposive sampling N = 16 Pakistani immigrant mothers N = 15 Chinese immigrant mothers | Semi-structured interviews | • Bilingual research assistants assisted in recruitment • Interviews were conducted at participants’ homes • Interviews conducted by bilingual research assistants, or with the help of interpreters | No information provided | • Experience of health visiting service including cultural sensitivity • Language • Generational Status • Experience of living with extended family |
19 | Jager | 2019 | Netherlands | Primary care | Dietetic care in Type 2 diabetes | N = 12 diabetic adults who are immigrants from Turkey, Morocco, Iraq and Caraco; and visit a dietician | In-depth semi-structured interviews | • Recruitment done by dieticians and researchers in practices orally and by information leaflets in different languages • Interviews held in preferred language thorough interpreters who were specially trained • Interviews conducted in participants’ home • Family present in several cases | Recruitment was done from nine Dutch dietetic practices in areas with a high proportion of migrant residents | • Country of origin • Length of stay in Netherlands • Explanatory model of illness by Arthur Kleinman was one of the models on which topic list was based. It addresses the social and cultural influences on illness and health |
20 | Janevic | 2020 | USA | Hospital | Impact of perceived racial-ethnic discrimination on patient-provider communication | N = 16 Latina women who gave birth in a large hospital and had attended prenatal care at the same hospital’s clinic | Focus group discussion | • Participants were offered a $100 gift card for their participation • All materials were translated into Spanish • Focus group was conducted in Spanish language • Moderators were of a similar racial—ethnic background as study participants and were trained in the content of the discussion guide | A large hospital in New York. There is no information on why this site was selected | • Patient-provider communication during childbirth among Latina women was investigated from the perspective of Critical Race Theory (CRT). CRT focuses on the social construction of race and recognizes the pervasiveness of structural racism • The research team developed a discussion guide containing a series of questions on the women’s experiences during their birth hospitalization, communication with providers, and if they perceived differential treatment for any reason • Examples of questions include: “Was there a doctor, nurse, or other health care provider during your time in the hospital with whom you felt uncomfortable asking questions? Tell me more about this experience.”; “Can you describe any time during your care you may have felt you were treated differently from other women? Why do you think you were treated differently?” |
21 | Jomeen | 2013 | United Kingdom | Community | Maternity care | N = 219 women who self-identified as coming from black, ethnic minority (BME)groups in a national survey of women who had given birth in the last 3 months | Telephone interviews | • A leaflet in a wide range of languages with a Freephone number was mailed • Women could choose to participate by telephone interview or with the help of a Languageline interpreter | Data collected by the Office for National Statistics using birth registration records | No information provided |
22 | Jonkers | 2011 | Netherlands | Hospital | Ethnicity-related factors contributing to sub-standard maternity care and its effects on severe maternal morbidity among immigrant women | N = 40 immigrant women | In-depth interviews | • Most interviews conducted at participants’ homes 2-6 weeks after discharge, in hospital for those with prolonged hospitalisation • Interpreters were offered but accepted by a single participant only • Husbands, partners, relatives and friends involved during the complication participated in almost all interviews and added their perspectives. Sometimes they also acted as interpreters | Recruitment was done from a bigger country-wide registration study | None |
23 | Jun | 2018 | USA | Community | Pre-natal genetic testing and decision-making process | Referrals and Snowball sampling N = 10 Korean-American women | Face-to face or phone interviews | • Research team had three bilingual, bicultural scholars • Two bilingual research-team members translated interview-guide from English to Korean and conducted interviews in Korean language • Interviews were conducted either face-to-face or by phone, depending on where participants lived • Gif-cards were provided | • Participants initially recruited by referrals from Korean community leaders in a Midwestern urban area • Subsequently, a snowball sampling technique was used to recruit additional participants • Due to snowball sampling, participants were dispersed geographically throughout US | • No. of years living in USA |
24 | Kumar | 2018 | United Kingdom | Hospital | Satisfaction towards receiving information about biologics and future support preferences for Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) | Purposive sampling N = 27 South Asian patients with RA | Semi-structured interviews: Face-to-face or phone | Interviews conducted in preferred language (Punjabi/Hindi/English) by multilingual researcher | Sites were secondary care rheumatology clinics at 2 large hospitals | None |
25 | Kwok | 2017 | Australia | Community | Influence of cultural values and language on Treatment-decision making (TDM) process in Breast cancer | N = 23 Chinese-Australian women | Focus group discussions | • FGD conducted in native languages (Mandarin or Chinese) by first author and a trained research assistant, both registered nurses with clinical oncology experience and fluent in English, Mandarin and Cantonese • FGD conducted in premises where cancer support groups met | Participants were recruited from a cancer support group serving the Chinese community | • Confucian philosophy was used as a conceptual framework. It powerfully influences and behaviour of Chinese people -central concepts include deep respect for authority figures and mutual dependence within families along with responsibility for individual family members • English proficiency • Years in Australia |
26 | LaManusco | 2016 | USA | Community, Primary Care | Maternity care (Perinatal Care) | N = 14 Karen (Burmese) refugee women | In-depth interviews | • All documents were in Karen language • Interviews conducted at home, alone or in pairs according to participant preferences • Interviews were conducted in Karen with help of interpreter • Participants received $20 for participating | • Buffalo, New York, where a community of 4000 Karen refugees continues to grow • Primary care site was community health centre for Karen refugees | • Social contextual model (SCM): there are multiple psychosocial, population, and structural/environmental factors that influence health behaviours (Interview guide based on this and lit/rv) • Interviews with Karen perinatal patients focused on experiences during pregnancy, labour, and the postpartum period in Burma, Thailand, and/or Buffalo; women’s questions about and opinions of perinatal care in Buffalo; challenges faced during the perinatal period; and Karen perinatal traditions |
27 | Madden | 2017 | United Kingdom | Community | Healthcare experiences to understand barriers to engagement | Purposive Sampling, Snowball Sampling N = 42 East European immigrants (¾ Polish) | In-depth interviews (individual and small group), Focus-group discussion | • Adverts in Polish & English • All recruitment materials (posters and leaflets), the participant information sheets and consent forms were translated into Polish by a native speaker • Gatekeepers and participants were asked if they would like these translated into other languages when interviews and focus groups were arranged, however, this was not requested • Face-to-face interviews were conducted at place of participants’ preference (including cafes and community centres) • To encourage open and easy conversation, in only one language, focus groups were conducted with participants who already knew each other • Participants assisted each other with translation during Focus group discussion | • A medium town in North England • Recruitment done through local Polish and East European networks, general services like social housing providers, local authority services, recruitment agencies, a drug and alcohol service and libraries | • Nationality |
28 | Maneze | 2016 | Australia | Community | Communication issues in interaction with healthcare practitioner (HCP) | Purposive & Snowball sampling N = 58 Filipino immigrant adults with at least 1 chronic disease | Focus group discussions | Focus-group discussions moderated by bilingual researcher | • Recruitment was carried out in the Greater Western Sydney area where the Filipino migrant population was known to be the largest • Leaders and members of Filipino community organisations were invited to participate • Participants were asked to provide contact details of the researchers to friends and family members who they felt might be interested | • Questions focused on the facilitators and barriers to health-seeking and communication issues experienced during clinical encounters |
29 | Markovic | 2004 | Australia | Hospital | Gynaecological cancer disclosure and treatment decision-making | N = 11 immigrant women (Europe, Asia & Pacific, Middle-East) with gynaecological cancer | In-depth interviews, Participant Observation in cancer support group and out-patients’ dept | • Interpreters were offered for interviews where required but women preferred family interpreter for reasons of confidentiality • Richness of women’s responses indicated their general readiness to talk openly with the assistance of a family interpreter. The use of a family interpreter provided with the opportunity to explore gate-keeping with regard to cancer disclosure practice • An interview conducted with a professional interpreter, known to the woman through community networks, again demonstrated that she was not inhibited by the presence of ‘an outsider’ | • A tertiary, public hospital in Melbourne, Australia. There is no information on how this site was selected • Rapport established with female inpatients by visiting them on the ward and attending outpatients’ clinic when they presented for follow-up appointments, participating in a hospital-based cancer support group | • Continent of origin |
30 | McKinlay | 2015 | New Zealand | Primary care | Multimorbidity (MM)healthcare in a Very Low-Cost Access (VLCA) general practice | N = 5 patients of Cambodian origin, and N = 5 patients of Samoan origin | Interviews and focus-group discussions | • A Pacific Navigator (a role designed to enable Pacific patients and family to access health services to improve health and wellbeing) individually approached and recruited Samoan patients, and similarly, a Cambodian interpreter approached and recruited Cambodian patients • Trained interpreters each facilitated language-specific focus groups (Cambodian & Samoan) • Individual patient interviews were undertaken in the patients’ homes and focus groups at a church near the general practice which is regularly used for health promotion activities | • VLCC general practice in Wellington which manages a complex population with high levels of deprivation and a diverse ethnic mix | None |
31 | McLeish | 2005 | United Kingdom | Community | Maternity care | Convenience & snowball sampling N = 33 refugee women | Semi-structured Interviews | Women were interviewed either at home or in a neutral location such as a refugee/asylum support group, with an interpreter where necessary | • No information provided • Recruitment done through refugee/asylum support groups, refugee agencies, asylum accommodation providers and health professionals | None |
32 | Moxey | 2016 | United Kingdom | Community | Antenatal and intrapartum care in females exposed to genital mutilation | Purposive, Convenience and snowball sampling N = 10 Somali women who had accessed antenatal care services within past 5 years | Semi-structured interviews | • Interviews were conducted in a private room, offering women privacy to discuss a potentially sensitive topic • A lay female interpreter, identified and trusted by the community, was present where required • All participants received an inconvenience allowance in the form of a £10 shopping voucher at the end of the interview | • Participants recruited from 2 community centres in Birmingham, England • This location was identified due to the large resident Somali community and high numbers of Somali women with FGM accessing ANC services locally | • No. of years in England |
33 | Muscat | 2018 | Australia | Hospital | Healthcare decision- making in Renal care | Stratified, purposive sampling to represent dominant cultural & language groups N = 35 adults of CALD background receiving in-centre haemodialysis for advanced chronic kidney disease | Semi-structured interviews | Arabic interviews were facilitated by bilingual facilitator who was research assistant trained in qualitative methods | Four large haemodialysis units in Greater Western Sydney, Australia where 38% of population is born overseas | Interview Guide Experience of decision-making (renal replacement therapy and other); information and decision-making preferences, and; cultural values |
34 | Nadeau | 2017 | Canada | Primary care | Youth Mental Health Services in a collaborative care model | N = 5 migrant young patients (12–17 years old) who received mental health services in a collaborative setting for at least 1 year N = 5 parents of migrant young patients | F2F Semi-structured interviews | • Interviews with youths or parents were conducted either at the family’s home or at the local service centres (called CLSCs), according to their preference, • One parent interview was conducted in presence of an interpreter as requested • Youth and family members were offered compensation for their time (a $10 gift certificate or $20, resp) | Study site was primary-care, community based. health and social service center in Montreal that serves a multiethnic population and has three CLSCs.. These centres offer proximity services in multiple locations (such as the CLSCs themselves, schools, or patients’ homes) | • Ethnicity |
35 | Nguyen | 2022 | USA | Hospital | Outpatient telemedicine | Purposive sampling N = 15 patients speaking Cantonese or Spanish [N = 6 were Asian/Pacific Islander/other, N = 11 were Hispanic/Latino] | Semi-structured telephone interviews | • In order to obtain a range of experiences, English, Spanish, and Cantonese-speaking patients who were scheduled for telemedicine visits were purposively sampled • Participants were interviewed by bilingual study staff in their preferred language • Demography data was collected by trained research-assistants, 2 of whom were bilingual • Participants were reimbursed for their time up to $40 | Three clinics—general medicine, obstetrics, and pulmonary–within the San Francisco Health Network, which is the public healthcare delivery system in the city and county of San Francisco, California, serving almost exclusively Medicaid and other uninsured/publicly-insured patients | • Preferred language • Self-identified race and ethnicity |
36 | Northridge | 2017 | USA | Community | Dental Care at 2 dental school clinics | N = 69 Dominican immigrants (50 years and older) N = 53 Puerto Rican immigrants (50 years and older) | Focus group discussion | • Both field recruiters were bilingual in English and Spanish and had several years of experience working with racial/ethnic minority older adults and senior center directors in upper Manhattan • Group discussions were held two locations where participants did not need to travel far from their residential neighbourhoods • All participants were offered the services of a taxi driver to pick them up at their homes or at a senior center, bring them to the focus group, and take them home afterwards. This strategy was crucial for ensuring focus group attendance, particularly for older adults with mobility problems • Groups were conducted in Spanish by senior qualitative researcher who was fluent in Spanish, along with bilingual assistant moderator | • Senior centres in upper Manhattan were chosen rather than places where older adults receive dental care in order to obtain a sample of individuals who did not necessarily have access to, or seek, dental care • Senior centres have been identified as important “third places” (as distinct from homes or “first places” and worksites or “second places”) where older adults may be targeted for health promotion activities | • Race/ethnicity • Primary language |
37 | Peters | 2019 | Netherlands | Community | Maternity Care | Purposive sampling, Snowball sampling N = 86 immigrant women | Interviews | • The locations of the focus group sessions were chosen by the participants • Assistance was available for respondents with a limited Dutch language proficiency. If needed, field experts and one of the moderators were available to interpret (languages: Papiamento, Turkish, Moroccan Berber, Portuguese and Moroccan Arabic) and further explain questions asked by the moderator | • Rotterdam is the second-largest city of the Netherlands with relatively high proportion of low educated inhabitants, with relatively high levels of unemployment, income segregation and poverty compared to other large Dutch cities • Active recruitment methods, including by ‘verbal advertising’ and through social networks. (a) peer education meetings organised by the community health workers, (b) primary schools during coffee breaks, (c) secondary schools and a community college during health(care) educational lessons(d) neighbourhood community centres | • Ethnicity • Years living in the Netherlands • Language proficiency level • Generational level |
38 | Ranji | 2012 | Sweden | Hospital | Ultrasound examination in second trimester of pregnancy | 9 Farsi speaking couples (N = 18) | Semi-structured individual interviews | • Seven interviews took place at the parent’s home and the other two interviews were held in a room at the university • All of the parents were interviewed in the Farsi language by the first author who is a native Farsi-speaking midwife • Each woman and her partner/husband were interviewed separately in order to give them freedom to speak their true feelings in confidentiality | A University hospital with southernmost region of Sweden as its catchment area. There is no information on how the site was identified | None |
39 | Rose | 2015 | Australia | Community | Self-management support from GPs | N = 28 ethnically diverse diabetes patients attending group diabetes education | Group interviews | A bilingual health worker who was knowledgeable in diabetes, acting as an interpreter for the Arabic-speaking and Vietnamese-speaking groups, was present during the interviews | Three community education groups for people with type 2 diabetes located in a culturally diverse region in Sydney | None |
40 | Semedo | 2020 | Sweden | Primary care | Multimodal pain rehabilitation (MMR) programme | N = 7 Somali women | Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion | • Invitation letter was written in Swedish and Somali • All individual interviews and FGD were conducted in the meeting room at the healthcare centre where the MMR programme took place • Somali interpreter was available | The site was a healthcare centre in Northern Sweden where a group of Somalian women underwent an MMR programme | None |
41 | Shaw | 2016 | Australia | Hospital | Cancer care coordination | N = 18 immigrant patients/carers [N = 8 Chinese, N = 5 Arabic N = 5 Macedonian] | Telephone interviews, Focus group discussion | • A letter of invitation together with information about the study in the patient’s own language and in English was mailed to all eligible patients • Patients were also invited to have their caregiver accompany them to the focus groups • Bi-lingual researchers telephoned potential participants who indicated an interest in the study after the mail-out to provide further study information • Participants were given the option of either a focus group or an interview • Written consent was obtained in patient’s own language • Researchers fluent in Cantonese, Mandarin, Arabic or Macedonian conducted interviews & FGDs • Bi-lingual researchers were experienced in health research, group facilitation and/or local community support group facilitation. They received training for the study and were supported by more experienced qualitative researchers who attended the focus groups and reviewed the interviews • Travel and associated costs of participation were covered • FGDs were conducted at a community library close to the hospitals, as this location was convenient for participants | Sites were 2 Cancer centres at 2 metropolitan hospitals in Sydney. There is no information on how these sites were identified | • Country of birth • Years in Australia |
42 | Singh | 2020 | Canada | Community | Compassion in healthcare | Convenience & theoretical sampling N = 19 South Asian immigrants | Semi-structured interviews | Interviews were conducted in either English, Hindi or Punjabi according to participants’ preference by a multilingual research-team member | No information provided | Demography Questions: • Fluency in English – If no, specify language fluent in – Hindi or Punjabi • Immigration status: • Canadian born • Immigrant: (< 5 years, 5–9 years,10–19 years, ≥ 20 years) • Temporary resident • Spirituality/Religiousness • Spiritual and religious • Spiritual but not religious • Religious but not spiritual • Neither • Religion Interview questions targeted both general aspects of compassion and cultural and ethnic perspectives regarding the concept, experience, importance and the facilitators and barriers of compassion 1. Considering your cultural background, what does compassion mean to you personally? 2. Can you tell me a little bit about one of your recent healthcare experiences where you felt you either received care that was compassionate or lacked compassion? 3. Can you describe an example of when you experienced care that you felt was compassionate? 4. What were the key parts that made it compassionate? 5. Can you give me an example of when you experienced care that you felt lack of compassion? 6. What were the key parts that made it uncompassionate? 7. How do you think, for example, your understanding of compassion might differ from a person from a different cultural background? 8. What do you feel are similarities across cultures? 9. What advice would you give your health care providers on providing compassion to members of your cultural community? 10. How can we make our healthcare systems more compassionate, especially towards the members of your cultural and religious community? 11. Is there anything that we have not talked about day that we have missed or you were hoping to talk about? |
43 | Speed | 2021 | United Kingdom | Community | Primary care | N = 28Chinese migrants 60 years and over with cardiovascular disease or significant risk factors (hypertension/high cholesterol) | Focus group discussion | • FGDs were held in preferred language (Mandarin/Cantonese/English) • FGDs which were held in a private room in a local community centre | Local community of a “Chinatown” in the Northwest of England | • Place of birth • First language |
44 | Valibhoy | 2017 | Australia | Community | Mental health services | Purposive sampling N = 16 young (18–25 yrs.) refugees | Interviews | • Because this small population is ‘‘hard to reach,’’ researchers expected recruitment would be a gradual process, requiring a multifaceted approach • A multistage informed consent process was used, allowing time for consideration before scheduling an interview e. Anecdotally, the barriers that refugee youth face to mental health service utilisation, especially stigma and language, also appeared to pose barriers to research participation • Three participants were recruited and interviewed with prebriefed, qualified interpreters | Participants were recruited from ethno-specific/cultural diversity services, nongovernment specialist services, public and community mental health services, a government support service, an education support service, an Internet site, volunteers, word-of-mouth, and snowballing | • Country of birth • Years lived in Australia • No. of languages known • Religion |
45 | White | 2019 | Australia | Hospital | Delivery of culturally competent healthcare in acute hospital setting | N = 12 immigrants [Greek, Chinese Dari, Vietnamese] who were admitted and received services from a trained interpreter on at least one occasion during one hospital admission had another admission without one | In-depth interviews | • Patients meeting inclusion criteria were mailed a letter of invite to the study, including study information, in their preferred language • After 2 weeks the researchers, using relevant interpreters, phoned each patient to answer questions and schedule interview • Interviews were held at a convenient time and location, typically the patient’s home | General Medicine program at Monash Medical Centre (MMC) or Dandenong Hospital (DH) | • Languages known |
46 | Wieslander | 2015 | USA, Mexico | Hospital | Factors affecting disease understanding among women with pelvic organ prolapse (POP) | N = 36 immigrant women with symptomatic POP | Focus group discussion | • 4/8 FGDs were held in Spanish with the help of bilingual moderator • A small honorarium was offered to patients for their time | Speciality practices at 3 large medical centres | • country of origin • religion |
47 | Wilkinson | 2017 | United Kingdom | Hospital | End-of-life care in renal disease | N = 16 South Asian renal patients | Interviews | • Majority of the members of research-team were bilingual in the main South Asian languages spoken in the UK, and conducted the patient interviews • Interviews were conducted in the participant’s preferred spoken language and at their choice of location, which was usually their home | Four UK centres providing kidney care to diverse populations: West London, Luton, Leicester and Bradford | end of life care for South Asian patients across haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis (PD) and conservative care pathways, to identify where there are inequalities in access and experience of end-of-life care |
48 | Wojnar | 2015 | USA | Community | Maternity Care (Perinatal Care) | N = 48 Somalian immigrant men and women who arrived in US within the past 5 yrs., had a child or children born in their homelands or refugee camps and at least one child born in the United States | Semi-structured individual interviews, Interviews with couples, Follow-up phone interview | • Couples expressed interest in the study by calling a Somali interpreter hired to assist with the investigation. The interpreter explained the study purpose and procedures, answered questions, obtained a verbal consent to meet for an interview, and determined which families would require interpretation services to conduct the interviews • Interpreter planned an in-person interview • between the investigator and the prospective participants for an in-person interview • Interviews were conducted in preferred language Somali language or Bantu (a dialect spoken by Somali Bantus) • All interviews were conducted at locations convenient for the study participants. The majority of interviews were conducted in the participants’ homes. Four interviews were conducted at a community center that allowed for complete privacy | • All of the participants resided in the Pacific Northwest • Several recruitment strategies were used: personal solicitation through a community partner agency that offers educational and social programs to new immigrants, provider referrals, and snow-balling technique | • Interview questions included: • Tell me about your life after you settled in the United States? • Pregnancy What are some special customs observed by Somalis in pregnancy? What was is like for you as expectant parents in the USA? How was the prenatal care different from your homeland/the refugee camp? How was the prenatal care similar in your homeland/refugee camp? • Childbirth What are some special customs observed by Somalis during childbirth? How was childbirth process different from your homeland/refugee camp experience? How was it similar to your experience in your homeland/refugee camp? • Postpartum What are some special customs observed by Somalis in postpartum period? |
49 | Wurth | 2018 | Switzerland | Hospital | difficulties patients with migration background and healthcare professionals experience in their shared clinical encounters and to explore ethical aspects involved | N = 16 Albanian immigrants N = 16 Albanian immigrants | Ethnography: participant observation (patient encounters with medical staff) and semi-structured interviews of patients | Language during interviews was based on the same conditions as during medical consultations: Most interviews were conducted in German, if patients had used an interpreter (professional or non-professional) during medical consultations, the same interpreter was also involved for the interviews | Sites were two outpatient clinics at large hospitals There is no information on how these sites were identified | • The semi-structured interviews combined a set of pre-defined questions developed from the literature study and questions that were triggered by the clinical experience of two practicing physicians in the research team in cross-cultural encounters • Interview questions were supplemented with observations made during the clinical encounter under examination • Each interview covered sections on demographics, cultural and social aspects, language and communication |
50 | Zehetmair | 2021 | Germany | Primary care | Mental healthcare at a psychosocial walk-in clinic | N = 22 refugees [N = 5 Eastern Europe N = 12 Asia N = 5Africa] | Semi-structured interviews | Recruitment and Interviews were conducted in preferred language with use of interpreter | A medical and psychosocial walk-in clinic run by Heidelberg University Hospital at Heidelberg, Germany. It supports psychologically burdened refugees within the state reception & registration center “Patrick Henry Village” (accommodating around 1200 newly arrived refugees and asylum-seekers) | • country of origin • religion |