Table 6 Facilitators and impediments to women’s empowerment expressed in FGDs with both men’s and women’s groups
Facilitators of empowerment | Impediments to empowerment |
|---|---|
Level of self-esteem and self-confidence | |
High self-esteem and self-confidence Little or no fear of expressing oneself in the presence of men or of assuming community responsibilities | Low self-esteem Timidity Fear of speaking in presence of men Fear of ridicule Fear of failure Reluctance to assume community responsibilities Fear of taking advantage of opportunities to participate in community meetings |
Level of education/Spanish fluency | |
Education (both formal and informal) Fluency in Spanish | Lack of education Limited fluency in Spanish |
Level of consciousness of rights and self-ownership | |
Awareness of women’s own civil and human rights | Lack of awareness of women’s civil and human rights |
Sense of being owner (dueña) of one’s own body | No sense of being owner (dueña) of one’s own body; husband is owner (dueño) of woman and family |
Degree to which relationship with husband/family is supportive | |
General support from husband (and to a lesser extent from the mother-in-law and/or the woman’s parents) | Domination by husband (and to lesser extent, mother-in- law and/or woman’s parents) |
Trust from husband (that his wife will comport herself well, remain faithful, handle money and responsibilities well, and make sound decisions) | Lack of trust from husband (that his wife will comport herself well, remain faithful, handle money and responsibilities well, and make sound decisions) |
Good communication with the husband, ability to negotiate her mobility and participation in decisions | Poor or no communication with husband; inability to negotiate her mobility and her participation in decisions |
Mobility (ability to leave the household, especially alone, to participate in meetings and community activities, with or without husband’s permission) | Lack of mobility (unable to leave home; forbidden or requires husband’s explicit permission, or required to be accompanied by others) |
Permission of husband to participate is not needed or easily granted – often only as a formality or just to know the woman’s whereabouts | Permission of husband to participate is not given, or given grudgingly or conditionally (e.g., after household chores are done) |
No fear of husband’s anger or of intra-familial violence | Living in fear of angering husband/provoking “problems” such as domestic violence |
Ability to participate (at least nominally) in most decisions regarding place of delivery, family planning, and care seeking for sick children Recognition by family that “mother knows best” regarding place of delivery or care seeking for sick children | Being ignored or over-ruled by husband and/or mother-in-law in health-related decision-making |
Absence of husband – out of town or away working as migrant laborer | Presence of [unsupportive] husband living in household |
Level of control over management of household responsibilities | |
Ability to balance role as participant in community meetings/activities with traditional role as housewife/mother Ability to not let household responsibilities impede participation in community meetings/activities | Feeling too burdened by household and childcare responsibilities to leave the home to participate in community meetings/activities Acceding to the traditional housekeeping/childcare role that keeps women isolated in the home |
Level of economic autonomy | |
Produces her own income that she controls (or she has some control over her husband’s/partner’s income) | Economic dependence on husband Traditional role of husband as breadwinner (the money he earns is “his”, with no sense of joint ownership) Woman does not generate her own income/money that is “hers” |