Table 3 First and second-order themes identified in the literature, with additional themes added by participants around the experience of judgment and its consequences for perinatal health

Experiences of Judgment

Second-order theme: Seen as a Risk

First order themes identified in literature

• Blamed for things outside of control [30,31,32,33]

• Pressure to show “good motherhood” [24, 26, 31,32,33]

• Asking for help leads to blame [24, 30, 34]

• Always under microscope [25]

Themes added by women

• Using my past against me

• Seen as dangerous if I stand up for myself

Second-order theme: Seen as Incapable

First-order themes identified in literature

• Assumed incompetence [25, 32]

• Consent not seen as necessary [30, 32]

Concepts added by women

• Loss of confidence of others; affects belief in oneself

Second-order theme: Invisible

Primary themes identified in literature

• Own needs not recognized [23, 34]

Consequences of Judgment

First-order themes identified in literature

• Internalized blame [30, 35]

• Self-doubt [30, 31]

• Unmet needs [23, 30, 33, 34]

• No voice in decision-making [25, 33]

Concepts added by women

• Anger, Frustration

• Contributes to anxiety and depression

• Must fight to be heard

• Makes me want to give up