Fig. 3

Results from the instrumental variable (IV) analysis models for men (blue/diamond) and women (red/circle). Annotation Figure 3: The following confidence intervals (CIs) were truncated to a − 10 to 10 interval: grip strengths (women) 95% CI (− 24.97352–12.64874); episodic memory (women) 95% CI (− 0.1034597–12.91134); visuospatial abilities (men) 95% CI (− 0.4174638–15.87406); ADLs (women) 95% CI (− 15.05158–4.946002); and IADLs (women): − 13.60297 (− 40.19411–12.98818). All the models were controlled for age, education, household per capita expenditure, area of residence, physical activity, smoking, BMI, SRH, depression, health check-up in the past 5 years, health insurance coverage, baseline NCDs, and disability; IV = residential stability (tests of endogeneity: Durbin (p = 0.049), Wu–Hauser (p = 0.045); instrument strengths F = 19.58 (p = 0.002)